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托福阅读TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:ChinesePottery
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托福阅读原文
China has one of the world's oldestcontinuous civilizations—despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. Acountry as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complexsocial and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a majorrole.
The function and status of ceramics inChina varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial,trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and theera in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broadtypes—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural itemssuch as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was animportant group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of whichwere produced in earthenware.
The earliest ceramics were fired toearthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C.,high-temperature stone wares were being made with glazed surfaces. During theSix Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producinghigh-fired ceramics of good quality. White wares produced in Hebei and Henanprovinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highlyprized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one ofthe high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition ofreligious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearlydelineated than that of stone wares or porcelains, for it embraces the oldcustom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images andarchitectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb modelsof the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tangdynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs wereoutlined in a raised trail of slip—as well as the many burial ceramics producedin imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.
Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies.One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were thesepieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation ofporcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. Fromthe Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobaltoxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level ofmanganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, whichproduces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the tradingactivities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities ofdecorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated andinfluenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinesethemselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottleswith long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially forthe European market.
Just as painted designs on Greek pots mayseem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully andprecisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it iswith Chinese pots. To twentieth-centuryeyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the formof each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragonrepresented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranateindicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood forwedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fishleaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Onlywhen European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings becomeobscured or even lost.
From early times pots were used in bothreligious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in theYuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established atJingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Longand often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assistin classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large andcomplicated picture.
托福阅读试题
1. The word “status” in thepassage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to
A.origin
B. importance
C.quality
D.design
2.According to paragraph 2, which of thefollowing is true of Chinese ceramics?
A. The function of ceramics remained thesame from dynasty to dynasty.
B.The use of ceramics as trade objects isbetter documented than the use of ceramics as ritual objects.
C. There was little variation in qualityfor any type of ceramics over time.
D.Some religious sculptures were made usingthe earthenware type of ceramics.
3.The word “evolve” in the passage(Paragraph3)is closest in meaning to
A. divided
B.extended
C.developed
D. vanished
4.Which of the sentences below bestexpresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 3) inthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leaveout essential information.
A.While stone wares and porcelains arefound throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to theancient period.
B.Religious sculpture was created in mostperiods, but its history is less clear than that of stone wares or porcelainsbecause some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.
C.While stone wares and porcelains changedthroughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.
D.The historical development of religioussculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resembleearthenware architectural ornaments.
5.Paragraph 3 supports all of the followingconcerning the history of the ceramic industry in China EXCEPT:
A.The earliest high-fired ceramics were ofpoor quality.
B. Ceramics produced during the Tang andMing dynasties sometimes incorporated multiple colors.
Earthenware ceramics were produced in Chinabefore stone wares were.
D.The Song dynasty period was notable forthe production of high quality porcelain ceramics.
6.The word “instigate” in thepassage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to
A.improved
B.investigated
C. narrowed
D.caused
7.According to paragraph 4, one consequenceof the trade of Chinese ceramics was
A. the transfer of a distinctive bluepigment from China to the Middle East
B.an immediate change from earthenwareproduction to porcelain production in European countries
C.Chinese production of wares made for theEuropean market
D.a decreased number of porcelain vesselsavailable on the European market
8.The word “whereas” in thepassage(Paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to
A. while
B. previously
C.surprisingly
D.because
9.In paragraph 5, the author compares thedesigns on Chinese pots to those on Greek pots in order to
A.emphasize that while Chinese pots weredecorative, Greek pots were functional
B.argue that the designs on Chinese potshad specific meanings and were not just decorative
C.argue that twentieth-century scholars arebetter able to understand these designs than were ancient scholars
D.explain how scholars have identified themeaning of specific images on Chinese pots
10.Which of the following is mentioned inparagraph 5 as being symbolically represented on Chinese ceramics?
A.Chinese rulers
B. love of homeland
C. loyally to friends
D. success in trade
11.Paragraph 5 suggests which of thefollowing about the decorations on Chinese pottery?
A.They had more importance for aristocratsthan for ordinary citizens.
B.Their significance may have remainedclear had the Chinese not come under foreign influence.
C.They contain some of the same images thatappear on Greek pots
D.Their significance is now as clear totwentieth century observers as it was to the early Chinese.
12.The word “these” in the passage(Paragraph6)refers to
A.religious ceremonies
B. descriptions
C.types of ware
D.pots
13. Look at the four squares [■]thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Wherecould the sentence best fit? Foreign trade was also responsible for certaininnovations in coloring.
Trade between the West and the settled andprosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies.One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-centuryAD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■【A】So admiredwere these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made inimitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of theirmanufacture. ■【B】From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purifiedform of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—thatcontained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a highmanganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■【C】In theseventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Companyresulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought toEurope, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares,notably Delft. ■【D】The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from theWest, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorativepatterns especially for the European market.
14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.
Ceramics have been produced in China for avery long time.
A.The Chinese produced earthenware,stoneware, and porcelain pottery and they used their ceramics for a variety ofutilitarian, architectural, and ceremonial purposes.
B. The shape and decoration of ceramicsproduced for religious use in China were influenced by Chinese ceramicsproduced for export.
C.As a result of trade relations, Chineseceramic production changed and Chinese influenced the ceramics production ofother countries.
D. Chinese burial ceramics have the longestand most varied history of production and were frequently decorated withwritten texts that help scholars date them.
E.Before China had contact with the West,the meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics was wellunderstood.
F.Ceramics made in imperial factories wereused in both religious and non-religious contexts.
托福 阅读答案
1.status状态，地位，所以B的importance重要性，地位正确。原句说瓷器的作用和什么因朝代而不同，而且之后有解释可能是实用的，用于埋葬的，或者blabla，所以importance能对上。origin起源不可能因为朝代而变化;quality后面有，不应该重复;design与后文的例子对不上
2.问题中的关键词不能用，所以排除法最好。A的dynasty todynasty做关键词定位至第一句，说反，错;B的trade objects和ritual objects做关键词定位至第一句，原文没有比较，错;C的quality做关键词定位至第一句，说根据它们质量决定用来干嘛，所以质量是有变化的，C错;D的religious和earthenware做关键词定位至最后一句，正确
3.evolve进化，演化，所以C的develop正确。原文说七到十世纪的白瓷怎么样成了宋代的很好的瓷，无论从时间上还是后面说的highly prized都证明后面的比前面的好，所以应该是变好的意思，A分开B延伸D消失都没有变好之意
4.原文的主要关系是因果，因果的结果部分包含了一个转折，所以从结构上说只有B和D可能正确。B正确，D错在原文说stoneware和porcelain比religious sculpture清楚，但没说religious sculpture不清楚，错
5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的high-firedceramics做关键词定位至第二句，原文说good quality, 备选项说poor，反了，错，选;B的Tang and Ming Dynasty做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;C的earthenware和stoneware做关键词定位至第一句，原文说最早的是earthenware，所以比stoneware早，所以C正确，不选;D的Song dynasty做关键词定位至第三句，正确，不选
6.nstigate教唆，鼓动，煽动，所以cause引起正确，注意不要被investigate迷惑。原句说那些陶器非常惹人喜爱，促进了earthenware的发展，也instigate了制陶 方法 的研究，instigate与原文的encourage并列，所以应该是鼓励之意。A提升改善B调查C变窄均不正确
7.以trade of Chineseceramics做关键词定位至倒数第二句，问结果，所以应该关注result in之后的内容，说大量的Chinese porcelain到了欧洲，影响了一系列ware，接着又说会专门为欧洲市场做一些ware，所以C正确;注意B尽管说到了change，但immediate是原文没说的;A没说;D说反了，应该是增加
8.注意 句子 中的seem和in fact，seem叫做看上去，也就是事实很可能不是这样，后面的in fact叫做事实上，也就是说前面说的很可能不是事实，两者呼应，都说明两句话之间的关系是转折，所以while正确
9.先看本句，现代人认为希腊的pots上的design只是装饰，没有实际意义，但事实上是有意义的，中国的pots也这样，所以B正确。A错，不是pots decorative，而是design;C说反，D没说方式，所以how错
10.问下面哪个是design的替代意义，倒数第二句整个都在说pots上design的意义，提到了emperor和empress，皇帝和皇后，所以A的Chinese rulers正确，统治者;其他都没说
11.问题中关键词不明显，排除法。A的ordinarycitizens和aristocrat原文没说;B的foreign influence做关键词定位至最后一句的European，说直到引入欧洲theme之后中国原有的装饰的意思才被obscure，对应B，没有foreign influence那些意思不会改变，正确;C没说;D反了，应该是ancient更熟悉
12.these往前找，找主语。注意从句子一开始到exist之前都是句子的主语，但of之前的东西是整个句子的核心，所以答案是description，对于什么什么的描述，描述才是核心，不是types of ware
13.两个过渡点，名词foreign trade和coloring。foreigntrade对应原文第四句的from Middle East Chinese acquired blabla和倒数第二句的tradingactivities，所以B/C/D都有可能;coloring证明B或者C正确。按照正常逻辑，应该先总括，说外贸也使染色技术发生变化，接着再说怎么变的，所以B正确，C错误
14.The Chinese选项对应第二段第二句，正确
The shape选项原文没说，不选
As选项对应原文第四段第一句，正确
Chinese选项原文没说，不选
Before选项对应原文第五段最后一句，正确
Ceramics选项MS对应原文最后一段，但最后一段没说imperial陶瓷是用于both情况的，也不选
托福阅读译文
【1】尽管中国曾饱受入侵，偶尔丧失主权受制于外国，她仍然拥有世界上最源远流长的文明。像中国一个拥有悠久文明的大国，而陶瓷在其复杂的社会历史以及视觉历史中扮演了极为重要的角色。
【2】在中国，每一个朝代陶瓷的功能和地位都是不同的，所以，根据它们的质量和制作年代的不同，可以是实用器物、陪葬品、贸易 收藏 品，甚至是礼器。对于容器、瓦片等建筑材料、模仿的物体或人物，陶瓷广义上被分为3大类：陶器、炻器和瓷器。另外，瓷器中还有很重要的一类就是宗教用途的雕塑，它们多数是陶质的。
【3】尽管最早的陶瓷是在制陶的温度下烧制的，但是早在公元前15世纪，就已经出现了上釉的高温炻器。六朝时期(公元265-589年)，中国北方就有窑炉在烧制优质的高温瓷器。从7世纪到10世纪，河北以及河南省产的白瓷逐渐演变成为享有盛名的宋瓷(公元960-1279年)——长久以来被认为是中国陶瓷业历史中的巅峰时期之一。宗教雕塑的传统在大部分历史时期中都有延续，但是没有炻器和瓷器质地的雕塑描绘的那么清晰，有一种古老的习俗，就是将刻着新的宗教形象和建筑装饰的陶器作为陪葬品。瓷制品还包括汉朝的铅釉随葬陶俑，唐朝的三彩铅釉器皿和人物，明朝的以泥釉凸纹展现轮廓的三彩寺庙装饰物以及很多用来仿制贵重器皿的陪葬瓷器。
【4】西方国家和繁荣稳定的历代中国朝代之间的贸易促使双方互相引入了新的形式和不同的技术。有一个意义最为深远的例子，公元9世纪精美中国瓷器出口到阿拉伯世界，带来巨大的影响。阿拉伯人对这些瓷器赞不绝口，于是他们鼓励制陶来仿制瓷器，并激励人们研究制作方法。中国人从中东获得了一种蓝色颜料——一种纯化的氧化钴，当时在中国并未出现，其中只含有少量的锰。中国境内发现的钴矿石含有大量的会产生暗蓝灰色的锰元素。17世纪，大量中国装饰类瓷器通过荷兰东印度公司的交易活动流入欧洲，这刺激和影响了广泛多样的瓷器的生产，特别是代尔夫特 。中国人自己改良了很多种来自西方的特殊器皿，比如长嘴的瓶子，并专门为欧洲市场设计了一系列装饰性图案。
【5】就像希腊的陶器上所绘的图案，今天看来也许纯粹是为了装饰，然而事实上在当时它们都是人们精心烧制而成的，它们的意义在当时非常明确，中国的瓷器也是如此。以20世纪的眼光来看，中国制造的陶瓷也许仅仅是装饰品，但是对于中国人来说每个物件的形状及它的装饰都有寓意非凡，影响深远。龙代表皇帝，凤代表皇后;石榴意味着多子，双鱼意味着幸福;鸳鸯寓意着婚姻幸福美满;松树、桃树以及鹤都是长寿的象征;鱼跃出水面意味着科举考试会高中。但是欧洲的装饰主题被引进后，这些寓意就变得不再那么流行甚至丢失了。
【6】陶瓷器皿在很早期就已用于宗教和日常生活中。朝廷分派了制作工作，并于元朝(公元1279-1368年)在景德镇设立了一座官窑。陶瓷器皿在一些宗教仪式上也有着重要的地位。现存的关于不同类型的陶瓷器具很多长篇且抒情的描述可以帮助我们对其进行分类，尽管这些描述有时候会使得一幅大而复杂的画面显得凌乱。
托福阅读TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Chinese Pottery相关 文章 ：
托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3
托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面我给大家整理了托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3，望喜欢！
? ? ? ?托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3
The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems
Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.
The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.
Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.
Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
托福TPO3阅读真题题目Part3
1. The word "particular" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○natural
○final
○specific
○complex
2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?
○They occur at the end of a succession.
○They last longer than any other type of community.
○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.
○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.
Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?
○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.
○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.
○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.
○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem's properties.
Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.
4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?
○Pioneer communities
○Climax communities
○Single-crop farmlands
○Successional plant communities
Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?
○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.
○Ecologists often confuse the word "stability" with the word "resilience."
○The exact meaning of the word "stability" is debated by ecologists.
○There are many different answers to ecological questions.
6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.
○They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.
○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.
○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.
Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.
7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?
○They become less stable as they mature.
○They support many species when they reach climax.
○They are found in temperate zones.
○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.
8. The word "guarantee" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○increase
○ensure
○favor
○complicate
9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that "A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle"?
○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example
○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations
○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity
○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems
Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.
10. The word "pales" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○increases proportionally
○differs
○loses significance
○is common
Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacentcommunity. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.
○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.
○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.
○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.
12.The word "adjacent" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○foreign
○stable
○fluid
○neighboring
Paragraph 6: █Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. █The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. █We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. █
13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.
14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.
○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.
○Disagreements over the meaning of the term "stability" make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.
○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans
托福TPO3阅读真题答案Part3
参考答案：
1. ○3
2. ○3
3. ○1
4. ○2
5. ○3
6. ○2
7. ○3
8. ○2
9. ○1
10. ○3
11. ○4
12. ○4
13. ○2
14. A high degree of species diversity
The level of resilience in
Disagreements over the
托福TPO3阅读翻译Part3
参考翻译：生态系统的长期稳定
植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。生态学家使用"演替"来诠释植物群落和生态系统随着时间推移所发生的变化。演替中的第一个群落被称作先锋群落，而处于演替最后那个长期生存的群落被称为顶极群落。先锋群落和紧接着的植物群落的变化周期是从1到500年不等，植物数量和混合种类数量的变化是慢慢积累的。顶极群落本身也改变，但其变化周期超过500年。
现代一个研究池塘的生态学会发现池塘在一年当中相对而言是不变的。个别鱼类可能被替换，但年复一年鱼的总数都趋于一致。也就是说，一个生态系统自身的属性要比由单一生物体组成的生态系统更稳定。
生态学家们一度认为物种的多样性使生态系统稳定，生态系统物种越多样则生态系统越稳定。通过观察得出的结论支持了这个观点，长期持久的顶极群落通常要比先锋群落具备更为复杂的食物网和更多的物种。生态学家家们得出的结论是：顶点生态系统的稳定性明显取决于他们的复杂化程度。举个极端的例子，在单一作物的农田中，一年的恶劣天气或单一害虫的入侵就可以摧毁所有作物。与此相反，在一个复杂的顶极群落里，如温带森林，他们便可以抵御来自气候和害虫的干扰和入侵。
不管怎样，生态系统稳定性的问题非常复杂。首先，不是所有的生态学家都赞同"稳定"的含义。稳定性可以简单地定义为缺乏变化。如果是这样的话，顶极群落将被视为最稳定的，因为根据定义，他们随着时间推移而变化得最少。另外，稳定性也可以界定为生态系统在经历了严重破坏之后回复原貌的速度，比如火灾。这种稳定性也被称作弹性。在这种情况下，顶极群落将是最脆弱和最不稳定的，因为他们可能需要数百年时间才能恢复到顶点状态。
即使是这种被定义为简单地缺乏变化的稳定性并非总是与最多样的物种联系起来。至少在温带地区，会经常在演替过程中发现最多物种，而不是在顶极群落中。例如，红杉树林一旦成熟，其中的物种数量以及单个物种的数量都会减少。一般来说，多样性本身并不能保证稳定性(事实上正相反)，生态系统的数学模型也可以得出同样的结论。一个更复杂的系统可能比一个简单的系统更容易被破坏(一个十五速的 赛车 比一个孩子的三轮车更容易损坏)。
生态学家们更想弄清楚到底哪些因素有助于促成群落的恢复，因为世界各地的顶极群落都因为人类活动而遭受到严重的损坏或毁坏。就像美国西北部圣海伦火山的猛烈喷发所造成的破坏，在人类活动对环境造成的破坏面前也相形见绌。我们必须了解对群落抵抗、破坏和恢复来说哪些是最重要的。
现在的很多生态学家们认为，顶极群落相对长期的稳定性并非来自于多样性，而是来自环境的"补缀"，随处变化的环境比始终如一的环境更有利于多种有机体的生存。当地物种灭亡后，马上就会被相邻群落的移民取代。即便是另一种不同的物种，他们也可以填补那些已灭绝生物的空缺，并保持食物网的完整。
托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3相关 文章 ：
1. 新托福阅读考试需要多长时间
托福TPO18综合写作及材料原文
托福TPO18综合写作范文：
The professor in the lecture totally disagrees with the three solutions mentioned in the reading passage. In fact, she believes that these solutions won’t lead to
satisfactory consequences at all.
Firstly, the professor mentions that help the Torreya reestablish in its original habitat is unlikely to success. She claims that the coolest and dampest area of the microclimate is strongly influenced by many worldwide climate effects such as the global warming, thus it is impossible for Torreya to thrive again in the same place. This strongly opposes the first method in the reading passage.
Secondly, the professor claims that moving Torreya to a totally different location is also unrealistic. She takes Black Locus as an example. Black Locus thrives quickly after entering a new habitat and endangers many scarce species. The professor points out the disastrous consequence and opposes the second method raised in the reading passage.
Last but not least, the professor claims that keeping Terroya in research center won’t be a good method either. Trees preserved in the center cannot resist diseases in the long run. The professor again opposes the last method in the reading passage.
托福TPO18综合写作阅读材料：
In the 1950s Torreya Taxifolia, a type of evergreen tree once very common in the state of Florida started to die out. No one is sure exactly what caused the decline, but chances are good that if nothing is done, Torreya will soon become extinct. Experts are considering three ways to address the decline of Torreya.
在佛罗里达州，佛罗里达香榧是一种非常常见的常绿乔木。从1950年代开始，佛罗里达香榧数量开始减少，并濒于灭绝。目前尚不清楚导致其濒危的确切原因，但是如果不采取任何行动的话，香榧很可能会灭绝。目前，专家们提出了三个方式去解决香榧数量下降。
The first option is to reestablish Torreya in the same location in which it thrived for thousands of years. Torreya used to be found in abundance in the northern part of Florida, which has a specific microclimate. A microclimate exists when weather conditions inside a relatively small area differs from the region of which that area is a part. Northern Florida’s microclimate is very favorable to Torreya’s growth. This microclimate is wetter and cooler than the surrounding region’s relatively dry, warm climate. Scientists have been working to plant Torreya seeds in the coolest, dampest areas of the microclimate.
第一个选择是把香榧重新种植在它们已经茂盛生长数千年的原生长地。在拥有特殊微气候的北佛罗里达，香榧树曾经数量众多。所谓微气候是指在一片独立区域内，内部一小部分地区的气候状况同该区域有区别。而被佛罗里达的微气候非常时候香榧的生长。该地区同周围干热的气候不同，是非常潮湿和凉爽的。科学家计划在拥有最冷和最潮湿微气候的地区种植香榧。
The second option is to move Torreya to an entirely different location, far from its Florida microclimate. Torrey seeds and saplings have been successfully plated and growth in forests further north, where the temperature is significantly cooler. Some scientists believe that Torreya probably thrived in areas much further north in the distant past, so by relocating it now, in a process known as assisted migration, humans would simply be helping Torreya return to an environment that is more suited to its survival.
第二个选择是把香榧移植到完全不同的地区，该地区远离其原生的微气候。目前，香榧的种子和幼苗在佛罗里达州北部很远的地方可以生长，那里相对来说冷很多。有些科学家相信在离原生地很远的北方，香榧或许可以茂盛生长。所以，如果现在进行辅助迁移，也就是说把香榧移到北方，那么人们可能就这么简单地帮助香榧重新找到适合它们生存的环境。
The third option is to preserve Torreya in research centers. Seeds and saplings can be moved from the wild and preserved in a closely monitored environment where it will be easier for scientists both to protect the species and conduct research on Torreya. This research can then be used to ensure the continued survival of the species.
第三个选择是把香榧保存在研究中心。把种子和幼苗从野外移植并保护在研究中心这样一个严格人工监视的环境里。这样，既方便科学家的保护该物种，同时也方便研究香榧。而所进行的研究可以有助于该物种持续的存活发展。
托福TPO18综合写作听力材料：
You’ve just read about three ways to save Torreya Taxifolia. Unfortunately, none of these three options provides a satisfactory solution.
你梦刚刚听到了三种保护佛罗里达香榧树的方法。很遗憾，这三个方法都不能解决这个问题。
About the first solution – reestablishing Torreya in the same location – that’s unlikely to be successful, because of what’s happening to the coolest dampest areas within Torreya’s micro-climate. These areas are being strongly affected by changes in the climate of the larger region. This could be because global warming has contributed to an increase in overall temperatures in the region or because wetlands throughout Florida have been drained. Either way, many areas across the region are becoming dries, so it’s unlikely that Torrey would have the conditions it needs to survive anywhere within its original Florida micro-climate.
先说第一个方法。在原地种植香榧树是不可行的'。这是因为原来适合香榧生长的湿冷微气候已经发生了变化。这些地方的微气候受到了整个大区域气候变化的严重影响。这可能是因为全球变暖导致了该地区整体温度的上升，也可能是因为整个佛罗里达地区的湿地变干。无论是那种原因，该区域的很多地方都变得很干旱，同原来香榧树生长的佛罗里达微气候已经不同。
Now about the second solution, relocating Torreya far from where it currently grows. Well, let’s look at what happened when humans helped another tree, the black locust tree, move north to a new environment. When they did this, some of these plants and trees were themselves already in danger of becoming extinct.
现在说一下第二个方法，就是把香榧种在远离它们原来生长地的区域。恩，让我们看看人类帮助另一种树的。人们把洋槐树向北移，移到了一个全新的环境。这么做了之后，当地一些本来已经濒危的植物或者树木因而灭绝了。
Third, research centers are probably not a solution either. That’s because the population of Torreya trees that can be kept in the centers will probably not be able to resist diseases. For a population of trees to survive a disease, it needs to be relatively large and it needs to be genetically diverse. Tree populations in the wild usually satisfy those criteria, but research centers would simply not have enough capacity to keep a large and diverse population of Torreya trees. So, trees in such centers will not be capable of surviving diseases in the long term.
第三，移到研究中心也不是一个有效的方法。这是因为研究中心能够保护的香榧的数量不足以帮助香榧抵御病虫害。如果一种树木想要抵御病虫害，就需要它的数量达到一定规模，并且具有基因多样性。在野外生长的树木一般可以满足这些要求，但是研究中心没有能力保护数量足够多，基因足够多样化的香榧树。所以，长期看来，这样的研究中心是不能保证香榧树抵抗病虫害的。
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托福阅读TPO20(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:FossilPreservation
TPO是我们常用的托福模考工具，对我们的备考很有价值，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO20(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Fossil Preservation。
托福阅读原文
【1】When one considers the many ways by which organisms are completely destroyed after death, it is remarkable that fossils are as common as they are. Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. However, the chances of escaping complete destruction are vastly improved if the organism happens to have a mineralized skeleton and dies in a place where it can be quickly buried by sediment. Both of these conditions are often found on the ocean floors, where shelled invertebrates (organisms without spines) flourish and are covered by the continuous rain of sedimentary particles. Although most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they also are found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. On occasion, animals and plants have been preserved after becoming immersed in tar or quicksand, trapped in ice or lava flows, or engulfed by rapid falls of volcanic ash.
【2】The term "fossil" often implies petrifaction, literally a transformation into stone. After the death of an organism, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. Indeed, unaltered shells of marine invertebrates are known from deposits over 100 million years old. In many marine creatures, however, the skeleton is composed of a mineral variety of calcium carbonate called aragonite. Although aragonite has the same composition as the more familiar mineral known as calcite, it has a different crystal form, is relatively unstable, and in time changes to the more stable calcite.
【3】Many other processes may alter the shell of a clam or snail and enhance its chances for preservation. Water containing dissolved silica, calcium carbonate, or iron may circulate through the enclosing sediment and be deposited in cavities such as marrow cavities and canals in bone once occupied by blood vessels and nerves. In such cases, the original composition of the bone or shell remains, but the fossil is made harder and more durable. This addition of a chemically precipitated substance into pore spaces is termed "permineralization."
【4】Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed " replacement" because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in bone are accurately preserved.
【5】Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.
【6】Although it is certainly true that the possession of hard parts enhances the prospect of preservation, organisms having soft tissues and organs are also occasionally preserved. Insects and even small invertebrates have been found preserved in the hardened resins of conifers and certain other trees. X-ray examination of thin slabs of rock sometimes reveals the ghostly outlines of tentacles, digestive tracts, and visual organs of a variety of marine creatures. Soft parts, including skin, hair, and viscera of ice age mammoths, have been preserved in frozen soil or in the oozing tar of oil seeps.
【7】The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago) of Germany accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outer coverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue.
托福阅读试题
1.The word "agencies" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to
A.combinations.
B.problems.
C.forces.
D.changes.
2.In paragraph 1, what is the author's purpose in providing examples of how organisms are destroyed?
A.To emphasize how surprising it is that so many fossils exist.
B.To introduce a new geologic theory of fossil preservation.
C.To explain why the fossil record until now has remained incomplete.
D.To compare how fossils form on land and in water.
3.The word "terrestrial" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to
A.land.
B.protected.
C.alternative.
D.similar.
4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A.When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution.
B.Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change.
C.Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time.
D.Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time.
5.Why does the author mention "aragonite" in the passage (paragraph 2)?
A.To emphasize that some fossils remain unaltered for millions of years.
B.To contrast fossil formation in organisms with soft tissue and in organisms with hard shells.
C.To explain that some marine organisms must undergo chemical changes in order to fossilize.
D.To explain why fossil shells are more likely to survive than are fossil skeletons.
6.The word "enhance" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to
A.control.
B.limit.
C.combine.
D.increase.
7.Which of the following best explains the process of permineralization mentioned in paragraph 3?
A.Water containing calcium carbonate circulates through a shell and deposits sediment.
B.Liquid containing chemicals hardens an already existing fossil structure.
C.Water passes through sediment surrounding a fossil and removes its chemical content.
D.A chemical substance enters a fossil and changes its shape.
8.The word "precise" in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning to
A.complex.
B.quick.
C.exact.
D.reliable.
9.Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the carbonization process?
A.It is completed soon after an organism dies.
B.It does not occur in hard-shell organisms.
C.It sometimes allows soft-tissued organisms to be preserved with all their parts.
D.It is a more precise process of preservation than is replacement.
10.The word "prospect" in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning to
A.completion.
B.variety.
C.possibility.
D.speed.
11.According to paragraph 7, how do environments containing oxygen affect fossil preservation?
A.They increase the probability that soft-tissued organisms will become fossils.
B.They lead to more bacteria production.
C.They slow the rate at which clay and silt are deposited.
D.They reduce the chance that animal remains will be preserved.
12.According to paragraph 7， all of the following assist in fossil preservation EXCEPT
A.the presence of calcite in an organism's skeleton.
B.the presence of large open areas along an ocean floor.
C.the deposition of a fossil in sticky substances such as sap or tar.
D.the rapid burial of an organism under layers of silt.
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage. But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. ■【A】Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. ■【B】Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. ■【C】The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.■【D】
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The remains of ancient life are amazingly well preserved in the form of fossils.
A.Environmental characteristics like those present on ocean floors increase the likelihood that plant and animal fossils will occur.
B.Fossils are more likely to be preserved in shale deposits than in deposits of clay and silt.
C.The shells of organisms can be preserved by processes of chemical precipitation or mineral exchange.
D.Freezing enables the soft parts of organisms to survive longer than the hard parts.
E.Comparatively few fossils are found in the terrestrial deposits of streams and lakes.
F.Thin films of carbon may remain as an indication of soft tissue or actual tissue may be preserved if exposure to bacteria is limited.
托福 阅读答案
1.agency代理，中介，作用，所以答案是force，选C。原句说由于腐食动物和细菌的侵袭，化学侵蚀和其他地质什么的作用，使得保存的难度非常大。combination组合明显不靠谱，problem是个负向词，不靠谱，之前并列的都不是变化，change不对。
2.修辞目的题，修辞点所在句是一个例子，所以往前看，前一句说fossil遭破坏的方式和fossil一样多，后面就跟了很多破坏的方式，所以答案是A，阐释为什么如此多破坏之下还有这么多化石存在。往后看也可以，下一句说如果化石有骨架的话被保留的机会会大增，也就是一直都在说化石存留下来的机会，所以A是正确答案。
3.terrestrial陆地的，陆生的，所以正确答案是A。原文说尽管大部分的化石都是在海洋中找到的，但也有一些是在河湖中的什么沉积物当中找到的，既然前文都说了大部分是在海洋里找到的，肯定后面会说是在陆地上找到的，所以答案是terrestrial，B/C/D都不靠谱。
4.原句的结构是并列加条件，所以正确答案是D。A的must be empty原文没说;B和C的关系都错误;D说的是shell会被剩下，如果足够耐腐蚀，就能保存一段时间。
5.修辞目的题，先看例子所在 句子 ，说很多海洋生物的骨骼包含calcite，没有答案，往前看，前一句说一亿年前的沉积物中能发现骨骼不变的海生无脊椎动物，与A靠谱，但A本身不是一个观点，所以A不对;B和D完全没说，不对;强调的中心在例子所在句的下一句，说arogonite的晶体形状不同，相对不那么稳定，会变成更稳定的形式，所以答案是C，想稳定的话必须再变。
6.enhance提升，提高，所以正确答案是D的increase。原文说很多化学过程都能改变壳体的结构并且怎么样它们作为化石保留下来的机会，combine明显不靠谱;limit和control意思相近，而且这两个词与increase意思相反，所以其他三个都不对。
7.以permineralization做关键词定位至最后一句。说将chemically precipitate的物质加入precipitate的过程叫做permineralization，this指代前文，所以往前看，前面说血管和神经占据的空隙会被充填，骨头和壳体会留下来，变得更坚固，所以答案是B，变得更坚硬。A的包含calcium不全面，而且原文的变硬也没说;C的remove chemical content和D的change shape都没说。
8.precise精确的，所以C 的exact正确。原文说replacement是一个非常什么样的过程，壳体的纹饰，树轮和骨架上的微细结构都被记录下来，B快和D可信完全不靠谱，细微结构被记录下来不见得复杂，所以complex也不对。
9.此段较短，完全可以快速扫完，当然用排除法也比较好。A错，原文说生命死后要经过若干过程才会carbonization，所以A的soon明显错;B正确，原文明确指出carbonization发生在柔软组织中，当然也就不会发生在硬壳动物身上;C的all their parts和D的比较原文都没说，都错。
10.prospect展望，前景，勘探，所以C 的possibility正确。原句说尽管有硬壳提高了保存下来的什么，但软体动物也能偶尔被保存下来。根据让步推出硬壳动物应该是容易保存下来，但跟保存下来的完整性和种类都无关，所以variety和completion都不对，speed完全不沾边。
11.以oxygen做关键词定位至第一句，说如果快速埋藏，并且在缺氧环境下，化石保存的概率会增加，也就是说氧的存在不利于化石的保存，所以正确答案是D，A与D刚好完全相反，所以A错，也说明两个相反的有一个对;C完全没说;B错，原文说缺氧能减轻细菌的破坏作用，但并不意味着有氧细菌就会变多，所以B没说。
12.EXCEPT题，排除法，由于考全文，应该关注各段开头。A的skeleton和calcite做关键词定位至第六段首句，正确，不选;B的ocean floor在原文中虽然有出现，但open areas没有，所以B错，选;C的sap or tar做关键词定位至第六段最后一句，正确，不选;D的rapid burial和layer of silt做关键词定位至第七段第一句，正确，不选。
13.如果找名词过渡，最容易找到的当属petrification，但遗憾的是，整段中既没有petrification，也没有 同义词 替换，这段段首已经开始说carbonization，也就是说petrification应该是上一段或者下一段说的，也就是A或者D正确，但待插入句说不仅限于，也就是前面已经说过petrification了，所以A对D错。
14.Environmental选项对应原文首段第三句，A正确。Fossils选项的比较原文没说，B不选。The shells选项对应原文第三段最后一句和第四段开头句，C正确。Freezing选项在原文第六段结尾捎带提了一下，但没说比较，D不选。Comparatively选项与原文第一段倒数第二句说反，E不选。The films选项对应原文第五段和第七段开头，F正确。
托福阅读译文
【1】如果想想生物在死之后被完全摧毁的种.种方式，能够这样频繁出现化石是一件很令人惊讶的事。食腐动物和细菌的破坏、化学性腐烂、腐蚀以及 其它 地质因素都会非常不利于保存。不过，如果生物体碰巧具有矿化的骨骼并且死于可以迅速被沉积物掩埋的地方，摆脱被完全摧毁的几率便会大大增加。海底通常就具有上述的两方面条件，这里生活着很多带壳的无脊椎动物(没有脊椎的动物)，不断累积的似雨的沉积颗粒会把它们掩埋起来。虽然多数的化石是在海洋沉积岩中发现的，但是在溪流和湖泊留下的陆相沉积物中也发现过。有时，浸入焦油和流沙、陷入冰或熔岩流或被急速降落的火山灰吞噬的动植物得以保存下来。 【2】术语“化石”常常意味着石化，字面意思就是变成了石头。生物体死后，软组织一般会被食腐动物和细菌吃掉。可能会留下蜗牛或蛤蜊空壳，如果空壳足够坚固并且能抵御分解，就有可能在很长一段时间内基本上保持原样。事实上，我们现在所知的在沉积物中发现的海洋无脊椎动物保存良好的壳已超过了1亿年之久。不过，很多海洋生物的骨骼是由称为霰石的各式碳酸钙矿物质组成的。虽然霰石与我们更为熟悉的矿物方解石具有同样的组成，但是它的晶型不同，相对不稳定，最终会变成更稳定的方解石。 【3】很多其他过程也许会改变哈喇壳或蜗牛壳并且增加它被保存下来的几率。 含有溶解的二氧化硅、碳酸钙或铁的水可能会在封闭的沉积物中流动，并沉积到诸如骨髓腔和骨头管道内，这些骨头管道曾经由血管和神经占据。这种情况下，骨和壳的原始组成没有改变，但是形成的化石更坚硬并且更持久。这种在孔隙中填充化学沉积物的过程就叫做“完全矿化”。 【4】石化还可能同时涉及死亡的动植物的原有物质与不同组成的矿物质的交换作用。该过程叫做“置换作用”，因为溶液溶解了原始物质并将其置换成为等体积的新物质。置换是一个让人难以置信的精确过程，贝壳装饰的细节、树木的年轮以及骨骼的精细结构都被精准地保存下来。 【5】另一种类型的石化，称为“碳化”，当软组织以碳薄膜的形式保存时会发生碳化。树叶和软体动物例如水母或蠕虫的组织可能会堆积起来，被掩埋并被压实，然后其中的挥发性成分会消失。碳通常以一种黑色轮廓的形式被保留下来。 【6】虽然拥有坚硬的部分的确会增加保存的可能性，但是具有软组织和器官的生物偶尔也会被保存下来。在针叶树以及某些其它的树种的凝固树脂中就发现了昆虫甚至是很小的无脊椎动物。对岩石薄片的X射线检查有时会发现可怕的触角轮廓、消化道和很多种海洋生物的视觉器官。冻土或石油渗漏时渗出的焦油中保存了包括皮肤、毛发和冰河时代猛犸象的内脏在内的软组织。 【7】如果生物体死于一个快速沉积和缺氧的环境，会有助于软组织残骸的保存。在这种条件下，细菌的破坏性影响会降低。德国始新世中期的麦塞尔页岩(来自4800万年前)就是在这种环境下积累起来的。该页岩在一个缺氧的湖泊里沉积，那里时有致命的气体冒出并杀死动物。动物的残骸在湖底聚集，然后被粘土和淤泥所覆盖。在保存完好的麦塞尔化石中有带闪亮外骨骼(硬质外部覆盖物)的昆虫，皮肤和血管完好无损的青蛙，甚至是毛皮和软组织都完整保存的小型哺乳动物。
托福阅读TPO20(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Fossil Preservation相关 文章 ：
求：托福 TPO口语第5套Question6参考答案Question：Using points and examples from the talk, ex
1、题目关键词：points and examples, two types of motivation
2、答题要领：
(1)summarize the two types of motivation briefly.
(2)use specific examples mentioned in the talk to explain each type.
3、听力材料要点：
(1)Extrinsic: do things because of external reward. A child doing housework because of money.
(2)Intrinsic: do something because it pleases us internally. More long lasting. Gym.
4、模板
(1)In the listening material, the professor introduces two types of motivation.
(2)The first one is ... , which means ... For example ...
(3)The second one is ... , which means ... For example ...